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Deer facts sheet - pg.pdf

Managing fallow deer (Dama dama) and
red deer (Cervus elaphus) for animal
house research
ANZCCART Facts Sheet
Z.H. MiaoA, P.C. GlatzA, A. EnglishB and Y.J. RuA A: SARDI -Livestock Systems, Roseworthy Campus, Roseworthy SA 5371 B: Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, PMB 3, Camden NSW 2570 Adelaide University SA 5005 Tel: 08–8303 7586 Fax: 08–8303 7587 jumping ability of deer, which can clear 2 m fences or Domestication of deer commenced centuries ago in higher (Mackay 1998;Spiers and Yerex, 1987). Deer Asia and Europe, particularly in China, where deer farms are designed such that deer can be moved along were farmed for velvet production, which is used in laneways connected to paddocks and to the handling traditional medicine. In Europe, however, farmed deer yards. While it is recommended deer holding yards be were mainly used for game meat (Hudson, 1999; under cover to enable easier handling in subdued Mackay, 1985; 1998). It was not until the 1970s that lighting (Mackay, 1998; SCA 1991), most farmed deer there was a growth in deer farming in western are held in open yards. To reduce the stress on deer it countries, coinciding with a depression of the beef is suggested they are trained to move into the yard industry (Mackay, 1985). Today deer are farmed in themselves by providing feed in the yards on a regular large paddocks where they run freely behind 2 m basis. Yards enable deer to be drafted, vaccinated, fences. Farmed deer adapt readily to routine handling weighed, velvetted and loaded. Commercial crushes and hand feeding, but can be fractious if not are commonly used to restrain deer without difficulty.
accustomed to human presence.
The main products produced from deer are venison While there are more than 40 recognised species and and velvet antler. The major consumer of venison in numerous subspecies of deer throughout the world, the world is Germany with 40-50,000 tonnes of venison many are not suitable for modern agricultural consumed annually. The other major markets for husbandry and must be kept in an open environment.
venison are in Asia, while domestic sales are increasing Farmed deer in Australia are limited to five species.
in Australia and New Zealand. Deer are the only Red, fallow, rusa and chital are the most popular species which produce velvet antler. The estimated farmed species, with only a few farms using sambar production of green velvet antler will be approximately deer. The number of farmed deer was estimated at 3,000 metric tonnes as the world population of farmed 2000 on 300 farms in 1985 (Mackay, 1985) and 160,000 deer approaches five million (Hudson, 1999; Mackay, in 1998 (Mackay, 1998). In 2001 there are probably 1998). Good quality mature red stags can yield 3 kg or about 250,000 deer on farms in Australia. Of these 40% more of antler and up to 1 kg per year for fallow are red, 50% are fallow with 10% of other species.
(Tuckwell, 1998). Venison animals are slaughtered at Fallow deer are the only species in Tasmania, while 12 to 24 months of age with carcase weights ranging red deer are probably now more numerous in New from 22-32 kg for fallow, up to 48-65 kg for red deer South Wales, Western Australia and South Australia.
and higher for wapiti hybrids.
In Queensland, red deer are also very popular, with smaller numbers of rusa and chital deer. The number Puberty occurs in fallow deer at about 28 kg, but of red deer has increased dramatically in South fawning rates are low at that body weight. Over 75% Australia during the last few years. Farmers in the fawning rates can be achieved if pre-rut weight is a different regions select specific species based on minimum of 38 kg. Mature does range in weight from climate, personal preferences, availability and market 42 to 50 kg and have weaning rates of over 90% (Smits demand for products. Recently, cross breeding, in and Haigh, 1990). The minimum breeding weight for particular wapiti stags crossed with red deer hinds and red deer is 65 kg, but the target joining weight is 80 kg.
European fallow crossed with Mesopotamian fallow, Research has shown that an increase in hind weight of has been used to increase body size and growth rate.
50% in red deer (from 60 to 90 kg) can result in a The cross bred/hybrid grows quickly and allows doubling of the number of calves that are born and seasonal markets to be tapped earlier (Fox, 1996; survive. Farmed red deer can achieve 85% weaning Tuckwell 1998).
rates, with weaning rate largely influenced by management practices (Tuckwell, 1998).
The deer industry
The world deer industry is growing about 20% Animal house research
annually and today there are about five million deer Deer are ruminants and considerable thought must be being farmed (Hudson, 1999). In recent years, deer given to ensure they receive diets suitable for optimum have been farmed on better-quality grazing pasture.
growth and reproduction. When pasture availability is Supplementary feed is required when the pasture is low, an economic supplementary feeding strategy is poor in quality (Mackay, 1998) and limited in quantity.
required. However, supplementary feeding for deer Specialised fencing and handling facilities have been production is either often commenced at the incorrect used on deer farms to cope with the agility and time or does not meet the animals' requirements, resulting in significant additional costs for the industry. To develop an economic supplementary Laneways which connect with the paddock should be feeding strategy, it is essential to understand the used to move the deer into the handling shed. The nutritive value of feeds commonly used by deer. To be crush should have a drop away floor, and the top third able to determine the nutrient requirements of deer of the side panels should fold down to give the there is a need to house the animals indoors to enable handler easier access to the animal. The front and rear accurate measurement of forage and water intake and doors of the crush can be either sliding or hinged. The faeces and urine production. However, farmed deer deer are usually transported in a covered deer trailer are normally maintained in groups in paddocks. The to maintain the animals' under low light conditions to deer housed indoors are faced with short-term social keep them calm and to make handling easier (SCA, isolation, which may be stressful and deer will elicit 1991; Mackay, 1998).
escape behaviour (Fox 1996; Hanlon et al., 1997; SCA, If there is a need to transport deer over a long distance from commercial deer farms to a research site, Selecting deer for animal house research
the preparation for transporting includes feeding them Despite the common perception of deer not being able once during the night and again in the early morning.
to adapt to indoor housing, successful adaptation of The deer can then be loaded into a covered deer trailer.
deer is possible. Newly weaned deer selected for For young calves or fawns, a roadside feed of warm re- research are easier to house indoors. Sex, age and constituted milk may be required, depending on the bodyweight are important factors when selecting deer distance and time. The regular feeding of deer in for research. Due to the similar digestive capacity holding yards close to the loading ramp will condition between the male and female it is easier to collect deer to yarding and reduce the stress on deer prior to faeces from male deer (urea and faeces are easier to transport. It is preferable, however, not to transport separate) than female deer for digestibility trials.
very young deer.
However, stags are extremely aggressive during the rut (Tuckwell, 1998) and castrated deer are often Housing in pens
selected. In any growth trials, the difference in growth Deer can be suitably housed in pens and it is possible rate between male and female should be taken into to house both the red and fallow together if separate account. In Southern Australia, most red deer calves pens are not available. The Animal Research Centre at or fallow deer fawns are born during the first two Roseworthy Campus, University of Adelaide has a weeks of December. Actual age of deer selected for deer holding facility with a raised floor approximately research trial could be inaccurate if the assumption is 3 metres above ground level. A 7 m x 7 m compound made all fawns are the same age, particularly if was constructed around the four posts in the middle selection of animals for research is delayed until most of the building with 1900 mm ring-lock fence strained fawning has been completed. The deer with body 100 mm off the floor giving a 2 m high fence. A double weights close to group means should be selected for gate for access to the enclosure was installed in one corner. On the short side of the compound the fallow stalls were erected so that the ring lock fence acted as Selection of deer for research should be carried out the back wall of the stall. The red deer stalls were carefully. Deer should be handled through erected on the opposite side of the compound to give progressively smaller paddocks and then into pens.
more space for larger stalls. Six stalls for red deer and Sufficient pens must be available before entering a race six stalls for fallow deer were built within the and crush to enable the stock to be separated into compound for digestibility trials. The compound (7 m groups without injuring each other. If animals are x 7 m) in an animal house should provide enough being held for a few hours awaiting handling, about space for the 6 red and 9 fallow deer to walk without 1.1 m2 of space is required for each adult red deer.
restriction. The height of the compound should be Once the animals are closely confined in a crush or about 2 m and covered all round with hessian to give initial holding pen, less space is needed. Calves up to deer privacy and to avoid startling the deer when six months of age can be accommodated with a space handlers enter the animal house. Initially, red and allowance of 0.3 m2 per animal. Calves of six to nine fallow can be housed in the same pen and the lights months old require 0.4 m2 and those nine months old turned off for two days after being introduced to the or over 0.5 m2 per animal.
holding area, to help the deer to acclimatise to the new conditions under minimum stress.
Extra care is required during the rutting period when selecting or moving deer between paddocks.
Once the rut starts the males become very aggressive.
It is beneficial to record deer behaviours via video for Young fallow bucks reach the rutting stage before the the first 10 days after introduction of the deer into the old bucks. Entire male deer may lose much of their indoor housing. This enables a record to be kept of fear of man during the rut, and can inflict serious their behaviour during periods when staff are not in injuries, even death to handlers. Male deer should not attendance. An infra red video camera linked to a be hand reared, as these individuals are likely to be video recorder with ultraviolet illuminator will give a more dangerous when rutting as they see man as a good video recording of animals both during the day rival and an equal. Rutting red stags are more and the night. The behaviour of deer can be recorded dangerous to handlers due to their bigger body size on video in real time or time lapse.
(English, 1984b). Rutting can last six weeks for red Staff should at first move slowly and talk quietly to the deer to let the deer feel that the handlers are not a danger to them. Handlers should avoid shouting or Eyelets were inserted around three sides of the cone waving their hands at the deer. Fresh lucerne and and this was fixed to the under-side of the pen using grain should be used to train deer and enable staff to cable ties. The open side of the shade cloth structure hand feed the deer. Patience is needed in handling was threaded with small rope, gathered up and tied to deer to avoid injury to both staff and deer. It is the floor to form a bowl to hold in faeces during important to hand feed deer daily for the first 10 days collection periods. This is different from faecal using the same staff dressed in similar clothing to help collection from sheep using faecal bags, but causes deer adapt easily to the handlers and new housing.
significantly less stress to the deer. One problem is that Fresh cool water should be available at all times.
the hair of deer can contaminate the faeces. The hair should be picked out before sampling, or could be It is important to move slowly and quietly when blown away with a hair drier after the sample is dried.
approaching the deer because they are very sensitive to The faecal samples should be stored at –10 °C. The feed sound and to unusual and sudden movements.
residue should be collected every day and weighed Children and short people seem to be less threatening during the collection period. to deer, but deer may react aggressively toward strangers. They walk aggressively towards the stranger, and sometimes raise on their hind legs and The best method of restraining deer for blood sampling strike out with the fore feet. Experience from the or other procedures is to use a drop floor or hydraulic Rowett Research Institute shows that red hinds appear crush. After deer are restrained in the crush blood to be more aggressive to children. Extra care should be samples can be collected by jugular venipuncture into taken when handling hinds at calving, as they can be evacuated glass tubes containing either dipotassium extremely dangerous. In addition, when the velvet of ethylene-diaminetetraacetic acid or no anticoagulant the antlers is fraying and prior to the rut, stags' (Wilson and Pauli, 1984).
behaviour is extremely unpredictable (Blaxter et al., 1974). It is not prudent to turn one's back on any deer Blood constituents of red and fallow deer
in a small enclosure.
Many blood biochemical parameters are potentially useful as diagnostic aids for many disease conditions Anecdotal reports indicate that dogs can cause of deer, with published reference values for all severe stress for deer. On occasions, deer will be very common species (English, 1992). While the values aggressive towards dogs. Experience at Roseworthy obtained from immobilised deer are useful, age and sex indicates that exposing deer to dogs early in the of deer and sampling time are important factors fawning periods enable the two species to interact influencing many haematological values. In general, without conflict.
the values of haemoglobin and packed cell volume are higher in deer compared to sheep, goats and cattle (Blaxter et al., 1974), but the sampling technique can Individual stalls were built for a digestibility trial at affect these parameters. For example, samples Roseworthy (figure 1).
collected from fully conscious deer are likely to produce higher haemoglobin and packed cell volume Stall dimensions for red deer were 1800 mm long x values than from tranquillised deer (Wilson, 1984b). 1950 mm high x 1200 mm wide. The walls and doors were constructed of pine timber frame and exterior ply Behaviour of deer in the animal house
sheets fixed with waterproof glue. The timber used Species interaction: Red and fallow deer do not usually was 75 mm x 40 mm in 5 or 6 m lengths. The exterior engage in fighting. However, when red deer are eating ply sheets were 1200 mm x 2400 mm x 7 mm. The they may not allow fallow deer to approach. Fallow timber was cut to the desired lengths to make the frame deer tend to eat when the red deer are sitting. Fallow and joined with gang nails. The ply was cut to the and red deer spend similar amounts of time walking, frame size and 8 g x 40 mm wood screws were used to foraging, sitting, drinking and grooming in the animal fix the ply to the frame. Holes were cut in the walls and house pen. During the afternoon in the initial four-day doors so the animals had eye and nose contact with acclimatisation period, fallow deer tended to spend each other. There were three rows of holes cut more time engaged in these behaviours compared to staggered at 100 mm in diameter, about 900 mm off the red (except for sitting).
Acclimatisation Stalls for fallow deer were built using the same 0-4 days: During this period of acclimatisation, there method of construction. Their sizes were 1200 mm was no difference in foraging, drinking and grooming long x 1950 mm high x 900 mm wide. The same time, although walking, sitting, standing and feeding material was used for the walls and doors. The 100 mm time did vary on some days.
holes were cut in the same pattern only 700 mm off the floor. The feeder was fixed on the door with the water 0-10 days: When the data were summarised over the bucket next to the feeder so that the handler did not 10 day acclimatisation period, there were no significant need to access the stall. A faecal collection net was differences during the day between fallow deer (1602.3 placed underneath each individual stall, similar to the ± 64.70 seconds) and red deer (1433.5 ± 107.12 seconds) faeces and urine collector used in metabolic cages for in sitting time, although the red tended to be more active than fallow deer engaging in more walking, foraging, standing and feeding (figure 2). Collecting samples of rejected feed and faeces
The raised floor had a 90% shade cloth net underneath Chemical restraint of deer
to collect the faeces. The shade cloth was cut to the Chemical restraint of deer is useful in specific perimeter size of each stall in the shape of a cone.
situations, but there is considerable variation in the Figure 1. Layout of the stalls for housing deer in the animal house
Fallow deer housed in stalls

drinking self-preening Figure 2. Average time (Seconds) fallow (n) and red (ž) engage in behaviours measured over 6 periods (30
minutes/period) in one day (means ± s.e.)
drug doses between species and between individuals.
is intubated and maintained with halothane (1-1.5%) The actual amount of drugs used is also dependent on oxygen or halothane/nitrous oxide/oxygen, with an the age, sex and body weight of the deer, and careful oxygen flow rate of 2 litres/minute. The deer can be evaluation of the deer should be made before intubated using only xylazine, but muscle relaxation is implementing chemical restraint. Administration of not good (Wilson personal com.). The induction agent the drug is best carried out by injection using a hand can also be glycerol quaicolate as a 5% solution in syringe (on a deer in a crush) or by projectile syringe on saline (Wilson, 1984a).
deer in pens. Some sedative drugs such as diazepam can be administered in the feed, but this is a less Anaesthesia of small callves and fallow deer reliable method. Young deer usually do not struggle as much and can be more easily handled. The small calf can be masked Oral administration is not a reliable method because with a mixture of halothane and nitrous oxide for of the wide variation in the amount of drugs actually induction. Intubation can be carried out using a consumed by individual deer, especially in group pens laryngoscope and anaesthesia maintained using where dominant individuals generally take more feed.
halothane/oxygen. Fallow deer can be sedated with The drugs used in this way include diazepam, xylazine at about 1 mg/kg. The same method can be acetylpromazine maleate and haloperidol. Haloperidol used for red deer (Wilson personal com.).
can be used at 0.2-0.3 mg/kg for fallow deer, and diazepam at 28.6-31.7 mg/kg liveweight for fallow Recommended protocol for velvetting
There is no place for full hard antlers on farmed deer.
There are a variety of methods available to achieve this, The injection can be administered using handheld including surgical polling, hard antler removal, velvet syringes, pole syringes, blowguns or power-projected antler harvest or castration (for deer destined only for syringes. However, the safe target area on a deer is slaughter). The commonest approach is probably to dependent on the type of syringe used and the size of remove velvet antler at a time that attracts the best the individual deer. For most deer, the preferred target price for this product. Any interference with the is the large muscles in the area behind the femur but growing antler requires effective analgesia, with the shoulders and in the neck may be acceptable. For serious animal welfare concerns if this is not done. The fat animals, there is a risk of injecting the drug into options for analgesia are summarised by English adipose tissue, which results in erratic drug effects. It should be remembered that projectile syringes should not be fired at moving animals. Of the drugs available, Diseases
the Hellabrun mixture of xylazine 125 The clinical signs of acute disease include dullness and mg/ml/ketamine 100mg/ml is commonly used for depression, loss of interest in avoiding being handled, fallow deer with the following doses recommended by standing away from the herd, victimisation by other English (1984a): Adult bucks (>75 kg liveweight): 2 ml; deer, and drooping of the head and ears. The following Young buck (50-75 kg liveweight): 1.5 ml; Yearlings is a brief summary of some common diseases. More (30-50 kg liveweight): 1.0 ml and adult does (35-45 kg detailed information on diseases, diagnosis, pathology liveweight): 1.5 ml.
and treatment has been reviewed by English (1992) and Haigh and Hudson (1993).
Red deer can be immobilised with a range of drugs and are readily restrained for procedures such as velveting by the use of xylazine alone, at dose rates The commonly occurring parasites in the pulmonary between 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg intramuscularly. Analgesia system include Dictyocaulus viviparus and Muellerius then needs to be achieved using local anaesthetic. The capillaris . D. viviparus can be a problem on red deer dose rates of the Hellabrun mixture are 2 ml for mature farms in Australia and only occurs under intensive stags, 1.5 ml for yearlings, and 1-1.5 ml for hinds. The farming conditions, especially when animals have been effects of xylazine can be reversed using yohimbine set at a high stock density or returned to dirty pastures intravenously at 0.25 mg/kg.
after drenching. This parasite is more severe in young animals of 3-6 months of age. Cattle are considered to Anaesthesia of red deer
be a source of this parasite for deer. The infected deer often lose body condition, with poor growth rates and Deer can be housed in an individual stall with solid rough coats. To prevent D. viviparus, deer should be wall and door, and with sawdust on the floor. Do not monitored regularly and when required drenched with use a straw-covered concrete floor because it becomes a common anthelminthic and rotated onto clean spelled slippery. When approaching and applying physical pastures. While sheep are believed to be the source of restraint, handlers should quietly talk to deer and wear M. capillaris in red deer, the effect of M. capillaris is a helmet to protect their heads. The handler should also be aware of biting and kicking. Before anaesthesia, deer should be fasted for 12-24 hours, with water Parasites in the gastrointestinal tract include many species and clinical effects are more pronounced in younger animals. The infected deer show poor body condition, low body weight gains and loose faeces. To The deer should be restrained in lateral recumbency on prevent these parasites, animals should be monitored soft mats and a blindfold placed over its eyes. The deer regularly and drenched when required and rotational is relaxed while the jugular is clipped and an grazing incorporate into the farming management indwelling catheter inserted. The deer is sedated at about 0.5 mg/kg xylazine and induced with a mixture of valium and ketamine intravenously. Then the deer The common liver fluke Fasciola hepatica has been Viral diseases identified in feral deer, but not as commonly in farmed Malignant catarrhal fever has been reported for red, deer. However, on deer farms with a higher stocking rusa and chital deer, through contact with sheep. This density, liver fluke could be a serious problem if the disease is invariably fatal in deer and cattle. The conditions were suitable for the parasite. The infected infected deer show blindness, circling, salivation and animals can be treated by using fasciolicides.
ulcers on lips and muzzle. There is no treatment. Sarcosporidiosis has been reported in some red deer Foot and mouth disease (FMD) has been reported in herds, with the parasite locating mainly in the other countries in many deer species, but not in abdominal musculature and diaphragm.
Australia and New Zealand. Feral deer could pose a problem in controlling the disease if FMD virus crosses Babesiasis occurs in cattle in Australia and may also from livestock, including farmed deer, into free-living occur in deer. There are no reports of the clinical signs deer populations. Feral pigs will undoubtedly pose a in deer, indicating that babesiasis may not be a problem greater problem, however, should FMD occur in for deer in Australia.
Lice occur frequently on farmed deer and could be Current deer research and facilities in Australia
a problem in young animals or on animals in poor body condition. Ticks have been found frequently on both The funds available for deer research in Australia have farmed red and fallow deer, especially in summer.
contracted sharply in recent years. As a result, a These infestations could result in poor quality velvet.
number of Institutes have either wound down research activity or are considering whether it is worth maintaining their infra-structure to conduct deer Salmonellosis has occurred in farmed deer in Australia.
The infected deer show anorexia, depression, listlessness, recumbency and opisthotonus. The Deer research on the Roseworthy Deer Farm treatment should be similar to that of sheep and cattle.
The Roseworthy Deer Farm is a joint venture with the South Australian Deer Breeders Association, The Yersinia pseudotuberculosis can be isolated from University of Adelaide and Primary Industries and normal deer faeces and is recognised as a major cause Resources South Australia. The farm consists of 80 ha of farmed deer deaths. Yersiniosis can occur on of land divided into 14 paddocks, some of which have properties after severe drought or other weather stress, been further subdivided for research purposes. There especially for deer in a poor nutritional condition.
are about 400 fallow and 90 red deer on the farm. A Hares, other free living animals and birds carry the number of research laboratories on Roseworthy organism, which can spread to deer by faecal campus can be used for deer nutrition and biology contamination of pastures and feedstuffs. Affected research, including nutrition, biochemistry, meat animals appear depressed, anorexic, standing away science and reproductive physiology. The Animal from the herd, and dehydrated. The strategies for House can house a large number of deer individually preventing this disease include the use of antibiotic- or in groups for detailed research. Current research impregnated concentrate nuts and avoiding or projects include: minimising nutritional and other stress factors.
* overcoming summer/autumn nutritional
Tuberculosis occurs in New Zealand and the UK in constraints to deer production in South Australia; red and fallow deer. Blaxter et al., (1974) described * defining protein and energy requirements of fallow
intermittent diarrhoea in young red deer with deer under a Mediterranean environment; and tuberculosis. Wilson (1984c) suggested that any * determining salt tolerance of red and fallow deer.
superficial or subcutaneous swelling in deer should be suspected as being tuberculosis. Only one deer herd in Deer research at The University of Queensland Australia has ever been diagnosed with tuberculosis, in The Darbalara Deer Unit at Gatton Campus, The South Australia in 1985. University of Queensland has recently been wound down with only a few deer being held on Campus .
Clostridial diseases include blackleg, black disease Prior to contraction of the infrastructure the Campus and enterotoxaemia. The last is more serious in farmed had an area of 32 ha, subdivided into 10 paddocks.
deer. These diseases can be prevented by the use of a There were about 300 red deer and 300 rusa deer. The specific vaccine or by multiple vaccines which protect Research Unit also had deer metabolism cages and against the major clostridial diseases.
other associated facilities. Research projects that were conducted included: Johne's disease appears to be easily transmitted to deer, and is now common in New Zealand. If deer are * development of feeding systems for deer, including
grazed in contact with other infected stock such as artificial rearing methods for rusa deer; forage sheep and/or cattle, the condition can become endemic utilisation by rusa deer and early weaning in some herds. Infected deer show weakness, strategies for rusa and red calves; emaciation, chronic intermittent scouring and a dry * nutrient requirements of rusa deer; coat. If a farm is infected with Johne's disease in sheep * microbial protein synthesis in rusa stags; and or cattle, it should be de-stocked for long periods * venison production from castrated and entire rusa before re-introducing deer. Several cases have occurred in farmed deer in Australia, but there is no evidence to date that endemic infections occur on Australian deer farms.
Deer research at The University of Western Sydney Haigh, J.C and Hudson, R.J. (1993). Farming Wapiti and Red Deer. Mosby-Year Book, Inc. St. Louis.
The University of Western Sydney has a deer farm with an area of 30 ha, with an access to a small abattoir.
Hanlon, A. J., Rhind, S. M., Reid, H. W., Burrells, C. and There are 12 individual pens for measuring feed intake.
Lawrence, A. B. (1997). Effects of isolation on the The current research is focusing on: behaviour, live-weight gain, adrenal capacity and immune responses of weaned red deer hind calves.
* nutritional requirements and growth characteristics
Animal Science 64, 541-546.
of pregnant and lactating fallow and red deer; * slaughter techniques for high venison quality; and
Hudson, R. J. (1999). Wildlife production: trends and * examining the relationship between condition score
issues. In: Diversified Livestock and eating quality of venison.
Deer Research Unit at the University of Sydney, Camden Mackay, B. I. (1985). Report on study tour of New Established in 1978, this unit was the focus of some 18 Zealand deer farming industry. NSW Department years of intensive research on fallow and chital deer.
of Agriculture, Orange, Australia.
No research has been conducted now for over five Mackay, B. (1998). The new rural industries (A handbook for Farmers and Investors). Rural Industries Market and quality assurance research at The Rural Research and Development Corporation. In: Industry Development Pty Ltd: The research by this company focuses on expanding the venison market and the development and adoption Standing Committee on Agriculture (SCA), of quality assurance systems by the deer industry. The (1979;1980). Deer production in Australia, the current projects are: outlook for the future. AGPS, Canberra Australia.
* development of niche European, regional domestic Standing Committee on Agriculture (SCA), (1991). The and Japanese markets; and farming deer (Standing Committee on Agriculture, * quality assurance, strategic alliances and industry Animal Health Committee). CSIRO Australia.
Smits, J. E. G. and Haigh, J. C. (1990). Specialized livestock – Game farming practice. In Saskatchewan - No Agriculture and Food. In: Blaxter, K. L., Kay, R. N. B., Sharman, G. A. M., Spiers, I. and Yerex, D. (1987). Modern deer farm Cunningham J. M. M. and Hamilton, W. J. (1974).
management. Ampers Publishing Associates Ltd., Farming the red deer. Department of Agriculture Carterton, New Zealand.
and Fisheries for Scotland, Edinburgh, Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
Tuckwell, C. (1998). Management Guide. In Australian Deer Industry Manual" No. 7. RIRDC Publication English, A. W. (1984a). Chemical restraint of deer. In No. 98/58. RIRDC, Canberra.
"Deer Refresher Course". The Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, The University of Wilson, P. R. (1984a). Notes on general anaesthesia of Sydney. pp. 325-351.
deer. In Deer Refresher Course. The Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, The University of English, A. W. (1984b). Veterinary aspects of deer Sydney. pp. 392-393.
farming in New South Wales. In "Deer Refresher Course". The Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney. pp.
Wilson, P. R. (1984b). Blood parameters, serology and trace elements in deer. In: Deer Refresher Course. The Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, English, A.W. (1988). Diseases of Deer. Vade Mecum The University of Sydney. pp. 353-366.
Series A, Number 11, Post-graduate Foundation in Veterinary Science, University of Sydney.
Wilson, P. R. (1984c). Diseases relevant to deer farming. In Deer Refresher Course. The Post- English, A.W. (1992). Diagnosis of Diseases of Deer.
graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, The Vade Mecum Series B, Number 16, Post-graduate University of Sydney. pp. 105-125.
Foundation in Veterinary Science, University of Fox, B. R. (1996). Deer farmers are reaching out and establishing viable, alternative agriculture. Agri Alternative In:

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